The Ethics of Belief
Belief is a fundamental aspect of our lives. We believe in all sorts of things, from the existence of God to the validity of scientific theories. But beliefs are not just intellectually satisfying; they also have practical consequences. They influence our actions and shape our character. Therefore, it is important to reflect on the ethics of belief: what are the standards by which we should evaluate the truth and value of our beliefs?
One of the most famous philosophers who dealt with this question is William Clifford. In his essay "The Ethics of Belief," he argues that belief without evidence, or even against evidence, is immoral. Clifford's argument is based on the idea that beliefs have a social dimension: they are not just private mental states, but also have a public impact. If we believe something without evidence, and act on that belief, we might harm others. For example, if we believe that a certain ethnic or religious group is dangerous, we might treat them unjustly. Therefore, Clifford thinks that we have a moral duty to believe only what we have sufficient evidence for.
Clifford's view has been criticized by some philosophers, who claim that it is too demanding. They argue that we often have to make decisions without having conclusive evidence, and that beliefs based on incomplete evidence can still be rational and valuable. For example, if a doctor has to decide which treatment to prescribe for a patient based on limited data, she might have to form a tentative belief and act on it. Moreover, some beliefs have a practical value that goes beyond their truth value. Believing in the possibility of a better future, for instance, might motivate us to work towards it, even if we cannot prove that it will happen.
Another philosopher who contributed to the ethics of belief is W.K. Clifford's contemporary, William James. In his essay "The Will to Believe," James argues that there are cases where it is legitimate to believe something without evidence, namely when the belief is "live," "forced," and "momentous." A belief is live if it is emotionally engaging and important to us; it is forced if we cannot avoid making a decision about it; and it is momentous if it has significant consequences for our lives. In such cases, James thinks that we can legitimately choose to believe what we want, even if there is no conclusive evidence for it.
James's view has been criticized by some philosophers, who object that it opens the door to irrationality and dogmatism. They argue that if we can choose to believe whatever we want, regardless of evidence, we might end up believing in absurd or harmful things, and that we might become closed-minded and unwilling to revise our beliefs. Moreover, they claim that James's criteria of live, forced, and momentous beliefs are too vague and subjective, and that they leave too much room for personal bias and prejudice.
Despite these objections, there is still a lively debate among philosophers about the ethics of belief. Some have tried to reconcile Clifford's and James's views by proposing a more nuanced approach. They argue that there are different degrees of evidence and different standards of rationality depending on the context and the purpose of the belief. For example, a belief might be justified by "pragmatic" evidence, such as its practical value or its coherence with other beliefs, even if it lacks "epistemic" evidence, such as direct observation or scientific proof. Moreover, they suggest that beliefs should be evaluated not only by their truth value, but also by their ethical and aesthetic value, such as their contribution to human flourishing and their beauty.
In conclusion, the ethics of belief is a complex and controversial topic, which raises fundamental questions about the nature of knowledge, rationality, and morality. While there is no easy answer to these questions, we can learn from the insights of different philosophers and try to develop a reflective and responsible attitude towards our beliefs. Beliefs are not just personal preferences or intellectual games, but also have a practical and social impact. Therefore, we should strive to believe only what we have good reasons for, but also be open to revise our beliefs in light of new evidence and experiences, and be aware of the ethical and aesthetic implications of our beliefs.